![]() Where y mhklp represents the dependent variable (e.g., fat percentage, protein percentage, lactose percentage, casein percentage, urea content, somatic cell score, pH, or acetone concentration) µ represents the overall intercept of the model altitude m denotes the fixed effect of the mth altitude (with m ranging from 1 to 3) season h corresponds to the fixed effect of the hth season of sample analysis (h ranges from 1 to 4, with 1 = June to August, 2 = September to November, 3 = December to February, and 4 = March to May) grazing k signifies the fixed effect of the presence or absence of grazing practice (k = 0 or 1) altitude X season represents the fixed interaction effect between altitude, farm, and season of sampling Housing system l denotes the fixed effect of the lth housing system (l = free stall or tie stall) farm p represents the random effect associated with each farm ε mhklp represents the residual error. Y mhklp = µ + altitude m+ season h + grazing k +(altitude X season) mh+Housing system l +farm p + ε mhklp The results provide new insights into a production effect that has so far received little attention and should be considered in farm management (e.g., feeding management, breed decision) to ensure animal health and the associated animal welfare as well as the productivity of dairy cows reared in traditional small-scale mountain dairy farms. Farms located at altitudes above 1,200 m exhibited higher fat, protein, urea, and somatic cell content than farms located at lower levels. Conversely, lactose content, milk urea nitrogen, and pH-value in milk from cows kept on farms at higher altitude (>1,200 m a.s.l.) showed a negative relationship with altitude. The findings revealed a positive association between altitude and milk fat, free fatty acid, and somatic cell count. The data were analyzed using a statistical model that considered altitude category, grazing practice, housing system, and season of milk analysis as fixed effects. ![]() Milk traits such as fat, protein, lactose, free fatty acid, casein, milk urea nitrogen content, pH-value, and somatic cell score were examined in the laboratories of the South Tyrolean Dairy Association using mid-infrared spectroscopy. Therefore, a data set comprising 5,680 bulk milk samples from 32 farms located at different geographical located altitudes was considered. The aim of the present study was to assess the impact of altitude on the quality of milk from dairy cows housed in small-scale farms in alpine area.
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